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(367) en marzo de 1621 el jesuita portugués Mateus de Couros (1568-1632?) dijo que la comunidad gozaba de gran quietud, porque Shigemasa sabía que los católicos vivían en paz y pagaban los tributos sin quejarse, pero su actitud pudo cambiar a causa de medidas represivas (nota 19). En marzo de 1623 había 6 jesuitas: el provincial, cuatro padres y un hermano, además había mendicantes, el daimio los toleraba mientras actuaran con cuidado y en secreto, porque necesitaba ingresos estables y de 1618 a 1625 se estaba haciendo un castillo (jōkamachi 城下町) donde pudieran vivir sus ayudantes. Por las largas estancias en Edo, muchos señores tenían que afrontar gastos y mantener siervos militares (gun’yaku 軍役) por eso no querían aplicar violencia a los cristianos. Pero en esa primera mitad del XVII muchos campesinos emigraban en busca de fortuna, los llamaban campesinos errantes (hashiri byakushō 走百姓), como en Shimabara había muchos católicos, podía perder mucha población si los perseguían. En diciembre de 1625 arrestaron al provincial y 3 jesuitas.
(367) en marzo de 1621 el jesuita portugués Mateus de Couros (1568-1632?) dijo que la comunidad gozaba de gran quietud, porque Shigemasa sabía que los católicos vivían en paz y pagaban los tributos sin quejarse, pero su actitud pudo cambiar a causa de medidas represivas (nota 19). En marzo de 1623 había 6 jesuitas: el provincial, cuatro padres y un hermano, además había mendicantes, el daimio los toleraba mientras actuaran con cuidado y en secreto, porque necesitaba ingresos estables y de 1618 a 1625 se estaba haciendo un castillo (jōkamachi 城下町) donde pudieran vivir sus ayudantes. Por las largas estancias en Edo, muchos señores tenían que afrontar gastos y mantener siervos militares (gun’yaku 軍役) por eso no querían aplicar violencia a los cristianos. Pero en esa primera mitad del XVII muchos campesinos emigraban en busca de fortuna, los llamaban campesinos errantes (hashiri byakushō 走百姓), como en Shimabara había muchos católicos, podía perder mucha población si los perseguían. En diciembre de 1625 arrestaron al provincial y 3 jesuitas.


(368) junto con sus catequistas (dōjuku 同宿), ayudantes (komono 小者) y familias que los acogían.
(368) junto con sus catequistas (dōjuku 同宿), ayudantes (komono 小者) y familias que los acogían. Shigemasa estaba en Edo y no podía fingir que ignoraba la presencia de los misioneros, que no habían tenido cuidado. Según Torres, actuó "por no poner en riesgo su estado". Entre 1625 y 1633 fueron ejecutados unos 100. Cristóvão Ferreira (c.1580– 1650) wrote a document of 148 pages about the situation of Shimabara in 1627, año en que mataron a 50.
 
For the first time, the village headmen (shōya 庄屋) and elders (otona 乙名) had to
establish lists of Christians (f. 125). According to Ferreira, the village elite and the
retainers (criados) were the main targets of the Matsukura clan: it was believed
their apostasy would show the path to the rest of the population (f. 126). Besides these two groups, only people with a certain social status were examined and sometimes tortured when they hesitated. Women and children were generally, but not always, spared. The officers of the lord organized the persecutions. Seemingly, in 1627, the Buddhist clergy had a minor role (or no role at all) in the anti- Christian policy.
This situation evolved swiftly. In a report about Kyūshū mission in 1629 and
1630 also written by Cristóvão Ferreira, the role of the Buddhist clergy is emphasized.
27 As is known for other ancient Christian domains like Ōmura28 or the city
of Nagasaki 長崎,29 after 1614, numerous temples and shrines were built to replace the churches. In the meantime, monks of different schools sat themselves in these promising lands. To all appearances, Shimabara knew the same phenomenon: the commoners were forced to give lands and houses to the monks, to entrust them... Ferreira wrote that Catholics, especially the householders, had to “idolize” (idolatrar) Buddhas (fotoque) in front of the monks and the officers. From the low number of martyrs during these two years and what is said by Ferreira, we can infer that abjuration was the priority of the lord. Those who refused to deny their faith would be tortured until they had given up Christianity.
 
Presumably, during the first decades following the ban, the Christians and the authorities gradually built up a modus vivendi. The warriors, in most cases, pretended that the threat of Christianity had faded away, while the practice of the remaining Christians would become increasingly discreet: the latter could believe whatever they wanted as long as they complied formally with the laws.
From 1638 until 1658, in the aftermath of the Shimabara-Amakusa revolt, Inoue
Masashige 井上政重 (1585– 1661), a “great inspector” (ōmetsuke 大目付) of the
Bakufu and a trustworthy vassal of the Tokugawa family, was given the responsibility to supervise the fight against Catholicism on a national scale; thus his prerogatives went beyond the boundaries of the territories directly governed by the shogunate.30 A compilation of texts written by him was elaborated by his successor Hōjō Ujinaga 北条氏長(1609– 1670): the Kirisuto- ki 契利斯督記 (Notes on Christianity).31 Its reading allows us to get a good grasp of the reality of the anti-Christian measures and the progressive adaptation of the Christians to them. One of its items reveals that control of the forbidden religion was irregular in some domains:
Quote 1
Among the lords, some carefully control Christianity; others do not. In the domains where religious measures are not carefully planned, it is easy to hide. In these domains, there are certainly Catholics. It is necessary to watch over, with meticulous care, how temple parishes inspect [their parishioners]. […] There are some domains where, after ordering farmers, merchants and craftsmen to sign Japanese or Southern barbarian oaths and to affiliate to a temple parish, religious inspection is abandoned for one or two years. It is obvious that a lot of Catholics are hiding in places where there is such carelessness.32
 
(370 sobre secretismo; conceal = ocultar) According to the above- mentioned theses of Ōhashi Yukihiro, we can say he was quite successful. However, the task of the authorities was considerably hardened by the behaviour of the Christians who tended to increasingly conceal their religion.
This attitude was, to a certain degree, admitted and encouraged by the Jesuits who distributed booklets, which indicated how Catholics should behave during the ban and how to prepare for martyrdom. One of these texts, which bears no title and was probably written around 1620, was confiscated from the hidden Christian community of Urakami 浦上 at the end of the eighteenth century by the magistrate of Nagasaki (Nagasaki bugyō 長崎奉行).33 A passage in the document detailed six acceptable behaviours from the viewpoint of the Catholic Church: (1) Christians did not need to declare their faith if they were not asked to do so; (2) they could flee if they believed they could not stand firm in the faith (Jp. hītesu ヒイテス/ L. fides); (3) they could hide themselves or (4) dissimulate religious objects; (5) to behave like a gentile (Jp. zenchiyo 前知与/ P. gentio) was strictly forbidden but Christians were allowed to act “neutrally”, “as if they did not seem to have any particular religion” (izure no shūshi tomo miezaru yōni 何の宗旨とも見へざる様に); (6) lastly, with their masters, they could show restraint about religious matters.
The Kirisuto- ki clearly shows Christians did not follow the limits established by the missionaries: “Originally, when they were asked if they were Catholics, they absolutely did not try to conceal [the truth]. Currently, they conceal it as much as possible.”34 Many interesting examples of concealment are described: Catholics hid pious images (imase イマセ from the Portuguese imagem) in the hilt of their short swords (wakizashi 脇差) or ashes of priests who had died at the stake inside their pillows or incense boxes;35 they also took advantage of the negligence of the Buddhist clergy in order to “christianize” the coffin of the deceased.36
After their formal apostasy, many Christians continued to secretly possess
devotional objects. In 1645, a woman in Hasami 波佐見 (Ōmura) was accused of

Revisión del 08:25 14 jun 2022

Neither Apostates nor Martyrs de Ramos es parte de Bibliografía Japón y está publicado en efeo.academia.edu además de en el volumen donde se publicó que es:

"Neither Apostates nor Martyrs. Japanese Catholics Facing the Repression (1612-Mid-Seventeenth Century)", p. 361-392 de Curvelo, Alexandra y Cattaneo, Angelo (eds.): Interactions Between Rivals: The Christian Mission and Buddhist Sects in Japan (c.1549-c.1647), PeterLang, Hamburgo, volumen 17 de Passagem. ESTUDOS EM CIÊNCIAS CULTURAIS - STUDIES IN CULTURAL SCIENCES - KULTURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE STUDIEN, Berlín 2021, 518 páginas. Disponible en internet: https://www.peterlang.com/document/1190560 [consultado el 13 de junio de 2022].

p. 361 Foreword: What about the 99 Percent Left?

Los relatos publicados por misioneros a partir de 1614, año que marca el comienzo de la prohibición del cristianismo, están "fairly censored".

Omata Rappo, Des Indes lointaines aux scènes des collèges: les reflets des martyrs de la mission japonaise en Europe (xvie – xviiie siècle). Münster: Aschendorff Verlag, 2020.

los mártires fueron una tiny minority de los estimados 300.000 japoneses que pertenecían a la Iglesia en vísperas de la prohibición (algunas evidencias estadísticas en Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549– 1650.Manchester: Carcanet, 1993, p.448).

Un gran número de creyentes siguió practicando la (362) religión de los misioneros después de haber apostatado formalmente. Al principio estos falsos apóstatas pudieron ser más que los verdaderos apóstatas y desde luego que los mártires. ¿Cómo percibían la obligación formal de renunciar al cristianismo?

Estudios pioneros que rectificaron la idea de que la comunidad católica difería radicalmente del sustrato religioso: Okada Akio 岡田章雄 (nota 5 Okada Akio chosakushū 岡 田章雄著作集. Kyōto: Shibunkaku Shuppan 思文閣出版, 1983– 1984.)

Higashibaba Ikuo 東馬場郁夫 nota 6 (Christianity in Early Modern Japan: Kirishitan Belief and Practice. Leiden, Boston & Köln: Brill, 2001.) se centra en la segunda mitad del siglo XVI (solo un capítulo entra en la época de represión) y considera que la apostasía "falsa" era la "más razonable y práctica conclusión si la gente quería continuar con su fe", pero pocas de sus fuentes son relatos directos de los commoners (activistas, laicos)

Kawamura Shinzō 川村信三 nota 7 (Kirishitanshintososhikinotanjōtohenyō キリシタン信徒組織の誕生と変容. Tōkyō: Kyōbunkan 教文館, 2003; Kawamura, Sengoku shūkyō shakai shisōshi: Kirishitan jirei kara no kōsatsu 戦国宗教社会思想史-キリシタン事例からの考察. Tōkyō: Chisen Shokan 知泉書館, 2011.) estudia las razones del éxito de la Iglesia al final del periodo Sengoku: 1) la capacidad de los misioneros para introducir rápidamente en el campo y las ciudades cofradías adaptadas a (363) las costumbres japonesas y sus estructuras sociales y 2) el atractivo del monoteísmo entre los japoneses en una época de guerras, inestabilidad política y calamidades naturales.

Mi estudio se centra en documentos de la península de Shimabara 島原 de 1612 a 1638. Arima Yoshisada 有馬義貞 (1521– 1576) fue uno de los primeros daimios conversos. Arima Harunobu 有馬晴信 (1567– 1612), known in the Portuguese sources as Dom Protásio la extendió en el sur de la península, hasta 20.000 los primeros en sufrir dura persecución de 1612 a 1615 cuando su nuevo jefe renegó: Arima Naozumi 有馬直純 (1586– 1641). Junto con campesinos de la isla sureña de Amakusa 天草 fueron los iniciadores de la revuelta a gran escala de inspiración cristiana en 1637-38.

364 De 1615 a 1625 la región fue relativamente segura para el clero y ocultó a muchos jesuitas, franciscanos y dominicos. Los oficiales del Bakufu 幕府 produjeron informes.

The Antichristian Measures: Between Relentlessness and Permissiveness

Estudios centrados en los mártires: 5 volúmenes de Kataoka Yakichi 片岡弥吉 on the regional history of Catholicism in Japan: Kirishitan fudoki 切支丹風土記, Tōkyō: Hōbunkan 宝文館, 1960.

Estudios sobre las causas de la persecución, último cap. de Boxer y también Elison, Deus Destroyed. The Image of Christianity in Early Modern Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973.

La prohibición no se aplicó uniformemente: Ōhashi, Kirishitan minshūshi no kenkyū キリシタン民衆史の研究. Tōkyō: Tōkyōdō Shuppan 東京堂出版, 2001, and Murai, Kirishitan kinsei no chiiki teki tenkai キリシタン禁制の地域的展開. Tōkyō: Iwata Shoin 岩田書院, 2007.

Ōhashi Yukihiro 大橋泰幸 (p. 100-131) establece 3 etapas en 44 dominios entre Tōhoku 東北 y el sur de Kyūshū 九州:

1620-30 De forma irregular se inspeccionó la religión de los súbditos, a cargo de oficiales.

Tras la rebelión de Shimabara-Amakusa, en 1640-50 la mayoría de territorios examinó usando el clero budista.

En los 1660, tras descubrirse cristianos ocultos en Omura 大村 (1657), Bungo 豊後 (1660) y Owari 尾張 (1661) se aplicó en todo Japón el sistema de inspección religiosa. Ōhashi, “Seitō itan kirishitan: Kinsei Nihon no chitsujo to kirishitan kinsei 正統・異端・切支丹-近世日本の秩序とキリシタン禁制”. Waseda Daigaku Kyōiku Gakubu gakujutsu kenkyū chiri- gaku rekishigaku shakai kagaku- hen 早稲田大学教育学部 学術研究 地理学・歴史学・社会科学編, no. 54, 2005, pp.11– 26; for Ōmura and Murai, Kirishitan kinsei no chiiki teki tenkai, pp.52– 58, for Bungo and Owari.

En Shimabara, la aplicación de la prohibición fue muy irregular hasta Arima Naozumi, a quien se permitió suceder a su padre a pesar de la conducta de este (nota 15, condenado a muerte por corrupción por el Bakufu, su señor era cristiano: Gonoi (Ed.), Kirishitan daimyō: Fukyō, seisaku, shinkō no jissō キリシタン大名-布教・政策・信仰の実相. Kyōto: Miyaobi Shuppansha 宮帯出版社, 2017, pp.193– 211.), inició una lucha a gran escala contra el catolicismo, exigiendo abjurar, pero muchos se negaron, por lo que entre julio de 1612 y enero de 1615, 63 fueron muertos o dejados morir por las autoridades (en su mayoría eran samurais del sur de Shimabara, nota 16: Juan Ruiz- de- Medina (El Martirologio del Japón 1558– 1873. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 1999).), los devotos les apoyaron organizando procesiones u oraciones públicas, hubo tanta agitación en los pueblos que el Bakufu decidió trasladar a Naozumi de Shimabara a Hyūga 日向 en la costa este de Kyushu.

Shimabara’s anti- Christian policy in the 1610s, see Ebisawa, Kirishitan no dan’atsu to teikō キリシタンの弾圧と抵抗. Tōkyō: Yuzankaku Shuppan 雄山閣出版, 1981, pp.179– 189.

(366) en 1616 Tokugawa Ieyasu 徳川家康 (1543– 1616) entregó ese dominio a uno de sus vasallos más fieles, Matsukura Shigemasa 松倉重正 (1574– 1630), con quien la situación de los cristianos mejoró: virtualmente ninguno murió ni fue perseguido antes de diciembre de 1625 (salvo noviembre 1622: un jesuita y 3 laicos, y entonces, según una carta de 3 de marzo de 1622 del jesuita Baltasar de Torres 1563-1626 estuvo ante un fait accompli.

(367) en marzo de 1621 el jesuita portugués Mateus de Couros (1568-1632?) dijo que la comunidad gozaba de gran quietud, porque Shigemasa sabía que los católicos vivían en paz y pagaban los tributos sin quejarse, pero su actitud pudo cambiar a causa de medidas represivas (nota 19). En marzo de 1623 había 6 jesuitas: el provincial, cuatro padres y un hermano, además había mendicantes, el daimio los toleraba mientras actuaran con cuidado y en secreto, porque necesitaba ingresos estables y de 1618 a 1625 se estaba haciendo un castillo (jōkamachi 城下町) donde pudieran vivir sus ayudantes. Por las largas estancias en Edo, muchos señores tenían que afrontar gastos y mantener siervos militares (gun’yaku 軍役) por eso no querían aplicar violencia a los cristianos. Pero en esa primera mitad del XVII muchos campesinos emigraban en busca de fortuna, los llamaban campesinos errantes (hashiri byakushō 走百姓), como en Shimabara había muchos católicos, podía perder mucha población si los perseguían. En diciembre de 1625 arrestaron al provincial y 3 jesuitas.

(368) junto con sus catequistas (dōjuku 同宿), ayudantes (komono 小者) y familias que los acogían. Shigemasa estaba en Edo y no podía fingir que ignoraba la presencia de los misioneros, que no habían tenido cuidado. Según Torres, actuó "por no poner en riesgo su estado". Entre 1625 y 1633 fueron ejecutados unos 100. Cristóvão Ferreira (c.1580– 1650) wrote a document of 148 pages about the situation of Shimabara in 1627, año en que mataron a 50.

For the first time, the village headmen (shōya 庄屋) and elders (otona 乙名) had to establish lists of Christians (f. 125). According to Ferreira, the village elite and the retainers (criados) were the main targets of the Matsukura clan: it was believed their apostasy would show the path to the rest of the population (f. 126). Besides these two groups, only people with a certain social status were examined and sometimes tortured when they hesitated. Women and children were generally, but not always, spared. The officers of the lord organized the persecutions. Seemingly, in 1627, the Buddhist clergy had a minor role (or no role at all) in the anti- Christian policy. This situation evolved swiftly. In a report about Kyūshū mission in 1629 and 1630 also written by Cristóvão Ferreira, the role of the Buddhist clergy is emphasized. 27 As is known for other ancient Christian domains like Ōmura28 or the city of Nagasaki 長崎,29 after 1614, numerous temples and shrines were built to replace the churches. In the meantime, monks of different schools sat themselves in these promising lands. To all appearances, Shimabara knew the same phenomenon: the commoners were forced to give lands and houses to the monks, to entrust them... Ferreira wrote that Catholics, especially the householders, had to “idolize” (idolatrar) Buddhas (fotoque) in front of the monks and the officers. From the low number of martyrs during these two years and what is said by Ferreira, we can infer that abjuration was the priority of the lord. Those who refused to deny their faith would be tortured until they had given up Christianity.

Presumably, during the first decades following the ban, the Christians and the authorities gradually built up a modus vivendi. The warriors, in most cases, pretended that the threat of Christianity had faded away, while the practice of the remaining Christians would become increasingly discreet: the latter could believe whatever they wanted as long as they complied formally with the laws. From 1638 until 1658, in the aftermath of the Shimabara-Amakusa revolt, Inoue Masashige 井上政重 (1585– 1661), a “great inspector” (ōmetsuke 大目付) of the Bakufu and a trustworthy vassal of the Tokugawa family, was given the responsibility to supervise the fight against Catholicism on a national scale; thus his prerogatives went beyond the boundaries of the territories directly governed by the shogunate.30 A compilation of texts written by him was elaborated by his successor Hōjō Ujinaga 北条氏長(1609– 1670): the Kirisuto- ki 契利斯督記 (Notes on Christianity).31 Its reading allows us to get a good grasp of the reality of the anti-Christian measures and the progressive adaptation of the Christians to them. One of its items reveals that control of the forbidden religion was irregular in some domains: Quote 1 Among the lords, some carefully control Christianity; others do not. In the domains where religious measures are not carefully planned, it is easy to hide. In these domains, there are certainly Catholics. It is necessary to watch over, with meticulous care, how temple parishes inspect [their parishioners]. […] There are some domains where, after ordering farmers, merchants and craftsmen to sign Japanese or Southern barbarian oaths and to affiliate to a temple parish, religious inspection is abandoned for one or two years. It is obvious that a lot of Catholics are hiding in places where there is such carelessness.32

(370 sobre secretismo; conceal = ocultar) According to the above- mentioned theses of Ōhashi Yukihiro, we can say he was quite successful. However, the task of the authorities was considerably hardened by the behaviour of the Christians who tended to increasingly conceal their religion. This attitude was, to a certain degree, admitted and encouraged by the Jesuits who distributed booklets, which indicated how Catholics should behave during the ban and how to prepare for martyrdom. One of these texts, which bears no title and was probably written around 1620, was confiscated from the hidden Christian community of Urakami 浦上 at the end of the eighteenth century by the magistrate of Nagasaki (Nagasaki bugyō 長崎奉行).33 A passage in the document detailed six acceptable behaviours from the viewpoint of the Catholic Church: (1) Christians did not need to declare their faith if they were not asked to do so; (2) they could flee if they believed they could not stand firm in the faith (Jp. hītesu ヒイテス/ L. fides); (3) they could hide themselves or (4) dissimulate religious objects; (5) to behave like a gentile (Jp. zenchiyo 前知与/ P. gentio) was strictly forbidden but Christians were allowed to act “neutrally”, “as if they did not seem to have any particular religion” (izure no shūshi tomo miezaru yōni 何の宗旨とも見へざる様に); (6) lastly, with their masters, they could show restraint about religious matters. The Kirisuto- ki clearly shows Christians did not follow the limits established by the missionaries: “Originally, when they were asked if they were Catholics, they absolutely did not try to conceal [the truth]. Currently, they conceal it as much as possible.”34 Many interesting examples of concealment are described: Catholics hid pious images (imase イマセ from the Portuguese imagem) in the hilt of their short swords (wakizashi 脇差) or ashes of priests who had died at the stake inside their pillows or incense boxes;35 they also took advantage of the negligence of the Buddhist clergy in order to “christianize” the coffin of the deceased.36 After their formal apostasy, many Christians continued to secretly possess devotional objects. In 1645, a woman in Hasami 波佐見 (Ōmura) was accused of